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凱瑟琳·沃德·湯普森:城市空間的生態
時間:2018-09-19 18:03:13  來源:城市化雜志  作者:百瑞·威爾遜 

百瑞·威爾遜:

  中國國際城市化發展戰略研究委員會委員、英國注冊景觀建筑師

  百瑞是香港園境師協會的董事、香港注冊園境師

  英國景觀建筑師學會和香港園境師學會的成員

  百瑞先生是香港城市設計學會副會長,由他創立的百瑞雋思項目咨詢有限公司在解決中國大陸和香港的城市化問題方面已有20余年的實踐經驗。www.initiatives.com.hk

  Barry Wilson is Vice President of the Hong Kong Institute of Urban Design. His practice, Barry Wilson Project Initiatives, have been tackling urbanisation issues in Hong Kong and China for over 20 years. www.initiatives.com.hk

  作者寄語

  城市從未像現在這樣復雜,多方面的問題會影響到城市建設中的理念、規劃、開發、管理和老化。在時間維度下,人口聚集過程承載著社會、政治、健康、文化和經濟背景。故此涉及到的社會領域包羅萬象,包括社會歷史學、城市社會學、建筑史和考古學,還有醫療健康與教育、城市地理學與經濟學理論。

  在這個專欄中,我將游走在世界各地,與各領域的專家、遠見者、變革者一道討論讓城市生活更美好的基本要素。并在不同關鍵維度上,分享他們對未來城市生活的獨特見解。

  (百瑞·威爾遜于2018年8月深圳)

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百瑞·威爾遜(右)與凱瑟琳·沃德·湯普森(左)暢談城市化問題

  上次與著名景觀建筑師、健康研究員及教育家凱瑟琳·沃德·湯普森見面,已經是1989年的事了。那時我還是個少不更事的大學生,急切想趕完一篇關于愛丁堡藝術學院歷史公園修繕項目的畢業論文。凱瑟琳那時是我的導師,公園修繕也是她當時的專業課題。作為我們的系主任,凱瑟琳當時對我們學生而言確實是一個可怕的存在。凱瑟琳年紀輕輕就飛速步入職業巔峰,并在辨別景觀與身心健康提升之間的聯系上有著極強專業素養,尤其是兒童、青少年與老人的身心健康提升上。她是蜚聲國際的OPENspace研究中心的創始人與總監,主導了許多重大研究資助與合作項目,包括為蘇格蘭政府及獲過大獎的I’DGO協會所承接的極具創新性的“綠色健康(Greenhealth)”研究項目。
此次我們在廣州相見,正逢凱瑟琳在華南理工大學舉辦演講及專題研討會。多年后重逢,我還是忍不住吃驚:凱瑟琳溫柔的語調與自然平和的舉止在幾十年前是怎樣震懾住一群大學生的。“其實我當時也挺害怕的,”重逢之際她坦言道,“因為那么年輕,何況又擔任系主任這種自己力所難及的職責。”然而,我對昔日記憶的緊張感很快就淡去了。在那個溫暖的下午,我們談論著讓各年齡段、各能力階層的人無論在何地皆可享有接觸高質景觀空間的重要性及價值。

  健康與環境

  “財富是預測健康程度與壽命的最佳指標。”凱瑟琳簡單闡釋道。縱觀數世紀歷史,無不如此,而且這一現象還在持續。即便是在先進發達的社會里,健康程度最低的人群也總是那些財富最少的。然而,近年來越來越多的證據顯示,讓大眾有權享有優質的環境、尤其是自然環境,其實是減少社會不平等的最容易及最劃算的方式之一。“最大的利益可以視作是給予最弱勢的社會群體的”。2001年凱瑟琳設立Openspace時,關于戶外環境可及性影響健康的研究尚無人問津。但隨著發達經濟體越發意識到非傳染性疾病(如心肺疾病、肥胖癥、糖尿病)的普遍性,也開始急于增強在這一方面的了解了。該領域的最新研究表明,盡管吸入土壤中的微生物有利于精神健康,且能增強免疫力,但林地可及性才尤其重要。綠色空間為社會互動、步行和交流提供了機會,也為人們創造了進行諸如種植之類的有益活動的可能性。

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  在景觀上投入尤其劃算

  凱瑟琳表示,獲取到證明上述事實的證據、并借此突出投入景觀的重要性一向都很困難。醫學界對于研究成果有著嚴苛的指標,而且要求強有力的證據程序。“質量調整壽命年”(QALY)是一項衡量疾病負擔的指標,包括生命存活的質與量,用于經濟評估中,以評估醫學干預花銷的價值。

  一“質量調整壽命年”相當于健康完好無損的一年。如果個體健康低于此最大值,那么其“質量調整壽命年”便以每年小于1的比例累積。“質量調整壽命年”可用于為個體決策提供信息,可應用于評估項目,并為未來項目設定優先項。在英國,如果在一“質量調整壽命年”中人均花費低于2萬-3萬英鎊(20萬人民幣),便說明這是價值良好的。公共空間可以以較低成本顯著提升“質量調整壽命年”,因為它作為一種干預手段,可以廣泛用于眾多群體,而非單單針對一人。通過上游介入公共健康,綠色空間可帶來巨大益處。

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  人口老齡化

  眾多發達經濟體都面臨人口老齡化的問題。因此,創建一個對老人友好的城市變得至關重要。讓人們在活動中“變老”非常重要,而高質景觀可及性便可讓徒步出行顯得較為容易且具樂趣。不平坦路面和臺階的存在、歇息平臺或廁所的缺乏,都對渴望出行的老人構成了障礙。而日光、自然環境及社交環境的可及性又創造了可供性。從家到目的地的這段旅途中所包含的出行挑戰對于老人們的決定有著關鍵影響。其中一個環節出錯或有困難,就可能使得老人們不愿出門溜達。因此,實體環境的設計至關重要。凱瑟琳暗示,座位配有扶手,可助老人起身或坐下;選擇不會出現明顯溫差的材料;這些細節都會帶來很不同的效果。

  為更好地了解保持活躍一事,就需注意到,人在身處戶外時,比身處室內,更容易選擇步行。出行還可以間接避免社會隔絕及隨之而來的孤獨感與精神健康問題。身體需要陽光來獲取維生素D。而日光可改善人體的晝夜節律,進而影響睡眠質量。科技創造的“虛擬人工景觀”是無法取代真正的景觀的。

  有趣的是,老人對于目光所及的景觀種類有著非常分明的態度,這主要是基于他們的兒時體驗。年少時經常接觸“自然”林地的老人到了老年仍舊傾向于選擇富有林地的綠色空間,而封閉的綠色空間對那些年輕時候并不怎么接觸林地的老人卻具威脅性,可能會令其覺得“不安全”或對這種綠色空間帶來的隔絕感感到不適。因此城市需要營造各色景觀類型,以適應不同的用戶群體。恰如凱瑟琳反復強調的那樣,要打造一個城市空間的生態系統。而用戶群體的存在反過來又可提高整體生物多樣性。

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  重塑城市

  將街道從車輛或“金屬盒”(凱瑟琳喜歡這樣稱呼它們)中搶回,會是提升公共健康的一個重大驅動力,尤其在清除路面污染這一層面上。不止如此,我們還需要提升步行環境,好的步行環境應當是怡人、陰涼且能調動人的感官系統的。聽鳥鳴、聞花香、感受天氣變化與季節流轉都很重要。凱瑟琳感嘆道,然而目前“機動車輛在城市環境稱王稱霸,行人淪為了二等公民”。道路對老人而言尤為礙事,因為他們需要花時間過馬路,且不得不應對路面高度的變化,而且還疲于評估過往的車輛速度及活動。

  自行車作為目前一種流行的城市交通方式貌似正走向復興。凱瑟琳對此表示歡迎。但這的確需要再為行人提供獨立的專門空間。因為行人們或許會擔心與移動飛速的自行車尤其電動自行車分享本已足夠狹小的空間。這對老人群體而言尤其是一個挑戰。對凱瑟琳來說,她到晚年所偏愛的,或許應是“三輪車”之類的出行模式了,即可運載行李,又可遮陽避雨,而且全程筆直穩定。當然,隨著科技日新月異的發展,這樣的交通工具很可能會變得自動化,而且隨著城市居民越發適應于共享經濟,也便不必再擔心“把控”車輛、車輛維修或停車問題了。這應該會減輕她的未來焦慮及精神壓力。“金屬盒”的大掃除定是她所歡迎的圖景。

  了解景觀與個人健康之間的緊密聯系本是一項由來已久的傳統,但在上世紀里,隨著現代醫學的發展,一些為時甚久的基本常識被籠罩模糊,人們似乎將這兩者剝離開來了。公共健康項目需要在社會各界、各色環境中開展。較之于其他高強度的矯正型公共醫療投入,將景觀作為改善公共健康的工具進行投資是低成本高收益的。但要全方位衡量并見證高質景觀的供給及反復維修給社會帶來的整體回報,則需較長時間,有時甚至可能需要數十年。又該如何令資助機構相信投入景觀可帶來切切實實且不斷累積增長的價值呢?

  興許我們正處于一個關鍵節點吧:社會再度意識到自然環境的重要性,未來的城市將變得綠色、干凈兼具包容性。凱瑟琳在城市景觀之于健康益處上獨具開創性且擲地有聲的貢獻將為時間所證明。由衷期待她在這一領域的后續耕耘!

BARRY INTERVIEWS—— CATHARINE WARD THOMPSON AN ECOLOGY OF URBAN SPACES

  It was 1989 when I last met Catherine Ward Thompson, the renowned Landscape Architect, health researcher and educator. In those days I was a snivelling student desperately trying to complete a rushed and flimsy final dissertation on the restoration of historic parks at Edinburgh College of Art. Catharine was my tutor, and park restoration was her then specialist subject. But Catharine was also “Head of Department”, and as such a fearsome presence to us students. Despite such youth, Catharine had been rapidly catapulted to the top of her profession, going on to develop an expertise in identifying evidence linking access to landscape with improved mental and physical heath, particularly with kids, teenagers and the elderly.  As founder and Director of internationally recognised research centre OPENspace, she has gone on to lead numerous major research grants and collaborations, including highly-innovative research on ‘GreenHealth’ for the Scottish Government and the award-winning consortium, Inclusive Design for Getting Outdoors (I’DGO).

  We meet in Guangzhou where Catherine is giving a series of lectures and workshops at the South China University of Technology. Upon meeting after all these years, I wondered how it could have been that her soft speech and naturally gentle demeaner could have so petrified the students in her department all those years ago. “I was just terrified myself”, she confessed upon meeting again, “being so young and then suddenly out of my depth as Head of Department”.  My nervousness of old quickly washed away in our interview however as we spent a warm afternoon discussing the vital importance and value to people of all ages and capabilities of having access to quality landscape spaces, wherever they are living.

HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
 
  “The best predictor of how healthy you are and how long you are likely to live is how wealthy you are” Catharine simply explains. This has been true for centuries and continues to be so, even in advanced and sophisticated societies, where those with the poorest health remain typically the least well off. There is however increasing evidence that access to good quality environments, particularly access to natural environments, is one of the easiest and most cost-effective ways of reducing social inequalities. “The greatest benefits can be seen to those most disadvantaged”. When she established Openspace in 2001 there was little or no research available on how access to outdoor environments affected health. But as advanced economies have become more aware of the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases such as heart and lung disease, obesity and diabetes, an
urgency for more understanding has developed. Newly completed research in these areas suggests that access to woodlands can be particularly valuable, whilst breathing microbes from soil is good for mental heath and can boost the immune system. Green spaces supply opportunities for social interaction, walking and talking as well as the potential to undertake beneficial activities such as growing food. 
 
FUNDING LANDSCAPE IS EXTREMENTLY COST EFFECTIVE

  Obtaining data to demonstrate these facts and therefore emphasise the need for funding has been difficult Catherine suggests. The medical profession has rigorous standards of research and needs strong evidentiary procedures. The term “Quality Adjusted Life Year” (QALY) is a standard by which to measure disease burden, including both the quality and the quantity of life lived. It is used in economic evaluation to assess the value for money of medical interventions. 

  One QALY equates to one year in perfect health. If an individual's health is below this maximum, QALYs are accrued at a rate of less than 1 per year. QALYs can be used to inform personal decisions, to evaluate programs, and to set priorities for future programs. In the UK a QALY is considered good value if it costs less than 2030 thousand pounds (200,000 RMB) per person. Public space makes significant improvement to QALYs at low cost since as an intervention it can be applied to a very wide group rather than person specific. As an upstream intervention to public health it can have huge benefits.
 
AGING POPULATIONS

  As many developed countries move towards the problems of ageing populations, making our cities more age enabled to all sectors of society becomes essential. Being active through ageing is important and accessibility to quality landscape makes it easy and enjoyable to get out on foot. Uneven paving, steps, a lack of rest opportunities or toilets can all act as barriers to elderly wanting to take a walk whereas access to daylight, the natural environment and sociable places act as affordances. It’s the challenge of the journey from the home to the destination that has a key impact on decision making. Just one thing wrong or difficult can stop elderly getting out and about, so the design of the physical environment is critically important. Details such as having arms on seats to help get up or down and choosing materials that don’t get too hot or cold can make a huge difference Catharine suggests

  In better understanding the issues of keeping active it is noteworthy that people are simply more likely to walk if they are outside rather than being indoors. Getting outside can also help to avoid social isolation and the resultant problems of loneliness and mental health. The body also needs vitamin ‘D’ through sunlight and daylight can affect our circadian rhythms and impact sleep quality. Technology providing a ‘virtual and artificial landscape’ can never replace the real thing.

  Interestingly the elderly appear to have differing attitudes to the type of landscape they encounter based significantly on childhood experiences. Those who were used to ‘natural’ woodlands and landscapes in their youth still seek them out in their older age, whereas enclosed, vegetated spaces can be threatening to those who were less accustomed to them when young. They may find they “don’t feel safe” or are uncomfortable with isolation. So cities need a variety of landscape types, suitable to different users, an ECOLOGY OF URBAN SPACES as Catharine repeatedly emphasises, where they could act to greatly enhance overall biodiversity. 

RESHAPING OUR CITIES

  Reclaiming streets from cars, or “boxes of metal” as Catherine likes to call them, can be a major driver towards improved public health, particularly in removing roadside pollution. However more than that we need better pedestrian environments, which are pleasant, shaded and can activate the senses. Hearing birdsong, smelling flowers, and enjoying the change of weather and season are important. Currently “cars are king in the urban environment and pedestrians are second class citizens”, states Catharine, becoming a touch animated. Roads are particularly barriers to the elderly who worry about having time to cross, have to deal with level changes and can have trouble assessing speeds and movements of vehicles.

  A seeming renaissance of cycling as a popular form of urban transport is welcomed by Catharine, but it does need a separate and dedicated space for pedestrians, , who worry about sharing small spaces with fast moving bikes and particularly e-bikes, a challenge in particular for the elderly. Her preferred mode of transport in her own twilight years would perhaps be some form of “trike” which could perhaps carry luggage, have a canopy against sun and rain and would be upright and stable. Of course, with technology changing so fast there is a good chance that such a vehicle will be autonomous, so she won’t need to worry about “handling” it or even maintenance or parking as urban dwellers continue to adapt to a sharing economy, which should relieve her future worry and mental stress. Getting rid of all those ‘metal boxes’ is certainly something she welcomes.

  There has been a long tradition of understanding the strong links between the landscape and personal heath, however the last century seems to have alienated the two, with the growth of modern medicine obscuring some long standing basic understandings. Public health is something that needs to work across all sectors and all environments and investment in landscape as a public health tool is extremely low in cost and high in benefit compared to intensive corrective public medical costs. It takes a long time however to fully measure and witness the return on investment to society at large of quality landscape provision and of its recurrent maintenance cost, perhaps even decades. How to convince funding bodies of the real and valuable benefits that can be accrued? 

  Perhaps we are at a point when society is again realising the importance of the natural environment, and our future cities will be clean, green and inclusive. Catharine’s pioneering work and evidentiary contribution to the health benefits of urban landscape will have proved invaluable by that time. We welcome her continued endeavours.

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